Pigments: white lime, yellow earth (goethite), red earth (haematite), umber, carbon black, green earth or malachite (?), azurite (?), lead pigment(s), massicot
Analytical techniques: OM, Raman, XRD, XRF
The plaster is made of lime and sand, which can easily be seen in situ as well as in the cross-sections of the samples taken (Fig. 1a), which show a yellowish-coloured plaster saturated with sand consisting of fine angular grains, predominantly translucent but also reddish, brown, and characteristically elongated and striped. The XRD analysis has confirmed a high aggregate content, mostly quartz and only a little calcite, i.e. a small amount of lime as a binder, which makes the plaster quite brittle. The plaster also contains some impurities, such as feldspars and illites/muscovites. Limewash was not used. The vertical boundaries of the giornate between the apostles are clearly visible, so each figure was made on a separate layer of fresh plaster. The borders between the giornate are nice and smooth, though there are noticeable variations between them in terms of the hues of the blue background. This is a common phenomenon caused by the differences in how the plaster dried or how the colour layer was applied. XRF analyses of all the relevant samples reveal strong sulphatisation and a high presence of strontium as an impurity in the lime. The plaster taken from the interior and exterior sides of the triumphal arch (Fig. 1b) shows the same composition, as revealed by both the cross-sections of the samples and the XRD analyses. This suggests that the chancel and the triumphal arch are the same mural rather than two different ones, as was previously thought, and the manner in which the figures were designed supports this assumption. Perhaps only the tendrils decorating the triumphal arch could be considered as a separate mural, as in that case, XRD analyses show a slightly different plaster that does not contain illite/muscovite, while the cross-section reveals a layer of limewash (Fig. 2), which was not found in the other samples. However, these results are not yet enough to confirm this hypothesis.
At first glance, the colour palette was basic, i.e. containing mainly earth pigments and azurite for the blue background. The samples of some of the pigments have been analysed using Raman spectroscopy and the XRF technique. Both have identified white lime, yellow ochre (iron, goethite), red earth (iron, haematite), umber (manganese, iron), and carbon black. In addition to these natural pigments, the painter’s palette included at least one lead pigment. The Raman spectroscopy has revealed massicot in the lower, thin yellow layer of the sample taken from the black edge of St Jacob’s white mantle (Fig. 3), while the XRF analysis has indicated the presence of lead (probably lead white) in the grey background of the vertical bordure below the window. Since massicot was detected in the lower colour layer, lead pigments certainly represented a part of the palette of the master from the Gemer region in Slovakia, though he rarely used them. No azurite has been detected. Therefore, the bluish background was probably made only by mixing white lime and carbon black with very little red earth, as seen in both cross-sections of the samples taken from the blue background in the chancel (Fig. 1a) and the nave triumphal arch (Fig. 1b). Nevertheless, due to the intense blue colour of the background and certain blue garments as well as the visible chemical changes in the colours of some blue draperies, the question regarding the use of this semi-precious pigment remains open. The figure of St Barbara wears a blue tunic with noticeably blackened parts (Fig. 4a), while the colours of St Dorothy’s garment transition from blue to green, with black spots also appearing in some places (Fig. 4b). This could be due to the degradation of azurite to green (para)tacamite and black tenorite, which, however, calls for further chemical analyses. The identification of the green pigment also remains unanswered: it could be malachite or green earth, but we do not have a sample. The basic binder is lime from the plaster, though in some places, the master must also have used an organic binder to apply the final details to the already dry plaster.
The application of the plaster according to the system of giornate and the good preservation of most of the colour layers suggest painting on fresh plaster, i.e. al fresco. This is also confirmed by some of the cross-sections (Fig. 1), which clearly show how the lime passes from the plaster into the colour layer and thus binds it to itself. However, as there was little lime in the plaster, it did not have sufficient binding power to also bind the subsequent colour layers. Consequently, some of them are peeling off the base, especially the thicker layers, which also fell from the plaster when the samples were taken (Figs 3, 5). The secondary elements, such as the bordures, were obviously painted on already dry plaster, as the boundary between the latter and the colour layer is clearly defined, so no lime passed between the two layers (Fig. 6). In this case, the pigments must have been impregnated with some organic binder, such as egg yolk, animal glue, or casein. Limewash or a thick bright colour layer was found only under the decorative tendrils on the triumphal arch (Fig. 2).
The halos of all the figures were incised and decorated with dense radially arranged pouncings (Figs. 4, 7). These incised lines are rather sloppy in places, as they cross the outer edge of some halos (Figs 4a, 7a). The heads of the saints were also outlined with incisions, as were some other objects such as the apostles’ attributes (the key, the sword), the jar held by Mary Magdalene (Fig. 7c), the crowns of St Dorothy and St Stephen on the window splays (Figs 4b, 8), Dorothy’s collar, and the hilt of the knight’s sword on the southern triumphal arch wall. Because the mural has been heavily retouched, it is difficult to make out the underdrawing. It seems that yellow and red colours were used. A thin yellow layer has been found on two cross-sections taken from the spots where the lines of the preparatory drawing can be expected, both in the chancel and on the exterior side of the triumphal arch (Figs. 1b, 3). A broad yellow line can also be seen in several places on the cloak of St John the Evangelist, especially where the subsequent colour layers have fallen away, for example on his right shoulder, along the folds of the cloak, and around both arms (Fig. 7b). On the other hand, we can also see a mostly dark red contour, especially for the modelling of the faces and hands (Figs. 4, 7, 8). In some places, the final black contour applied over the dark red colour is still preserved. However, interpreting the red contours calls for some caution, as the slightly brighter hue is probably the result of the reconstruction during the restoration works. The two colours of the underdrawing could indicate the work of two masters, but perhaps it was just a matter of work organisation – while the draperies were outlined in yellow, red was used for the faces and hands. The faces are quite specific, with accentuated, large eyes featuring long almond-shaped outer corners. The inner line of the eyelid arches above the eyes, topped by a long, thin eyebrow, which rises in the middle as it follows the shape of the eye until it falls in a slight curve towards the temple. A shorter, potato-shaped nose protrudes from the inner eyebrow, while the mouth is outlined mainly with a long central line with accentuated corners of the mouth to convey a smile and a short lower line defining the lower lip. The faces feature high foreheads and oval chins. The carnations have not been preserved everywhere. However, where they still exist, we can see colour modelling transitioning from light to dark tones, though applied with broad brushes so that there are no truly subtle transitions between the hues (Fig. 7). The basic carnation is light pink, with darker pink shading on the upper part of the forehead, along the nose, under the eyes, and on the lower cheeks, so that the bright cheekbones stand out plastically. The master also drew a strong pink shadow under the chin. He then applied ochre colour as a stronger shadow under the eyebrows and finished the shading with a grey varnish in some parts. He also painted the neck using broad horizontal and slightly rounded strokes, with alternating lighter and darker pink hues to create shading. The female carnations are lighter and mostly painted in pink tones (Figs. 7a, 7c), while the male ones are darker in colour, as the painter also added ochre shading to accentuate the lower eyelids, cheeks, and necks (Fig. 7b). In the case of St John the Evangelist, he also emphasised the space between the nose and the mouth. The modelling in the mural’s lower band (the apostles) appears better and more precisely executed (Fig. 7b, 7c) than the example in the upper band of the chancel termination (Figs. 4, 8) and on the vault. This could mean that the latter was painted by another, less skilled master, or perhaps it is simply due to the loss of colour modelling. A similar design can also be discerned on the stocky hands with thick fingers, which appear out of proportion with the body. Here, the colours were also applied from lightest to darkest, as the painter shaded the inner edges of the fingers and the upper part of the hand. A cross-section of the sample taken from the hand of St James the Less (Fig. 9) reveals the order of the colour layers used during the modelling of the carnations, with the thick basic pink colour layer standing out. The latter was made with a lot of white lime, which probably also served as limewash adding binding power to the subsequently applied pigments. However, such a thick colour layer can easily peel away from the painting base, which has resulted in many gaps in the mural. The figures wear various garments: most are dressed in tunics and cloaks, wrapped around their bodies and arms in various ways. Some of the figures are portrayed wearing fashionable clothes, with tight trousers and jackets reaching to their knees. All of the draperies were painted based on the chosen colour, on which the painter added folds using a broad brush and then subsequently modelled them, sometimes in a darker hue of the base colour and occasionally also in a different colour, such as red to shade a blue or green coat. Some coats, for example the one worn by St John the Evangelist (Fig. 7b), are adorned with a repeating pattern, suggesting the use of stamps or stencils. The patterns are flat and do not reflect the drapery’s movement. Stencils were also used to make the decorative bordures. As the garments’ colour layers have completely fallen off, they were probably applied to the already dry plaster. Let us also underline the exceedingly simple depictions of the four evangelists’ symbols on the vault, whose shapes appear exceedingly clumsy and were painted using broad brushes. The appearance of these symbols indicates that their author was not very skilled, which is already obvious from the modelling applied with broad brushes and without any subtle transitions between the hues. The figures on the vault and the triumphal arch were designed in the same manner as those on the chancel walls (Figs. 10). Their figures are slender, and their clothes follow the same fashion trends, featuring long, narrow sleeves reaching over the wrists and broad collars decorated with wide bands from which distinctively chunky necks protrude. The design of the heads, faces, and hairstyles is also the same as in the chancel. Based on this and the composition of the plaster, we can conclude that the murals are the work of a single painter or workshop rather than two separate murals.
Murska Sobota, Cathedral of St Nicholas, Stage 1 (Murska Sobota), 2024 (last updated 5. 12. 2024). Corpus picturarum muralium medii aevi, https://corpuspicturarum.zrc-sazu.si/en/poslikava/phase-1-murska-sobota-2/ (17. 7. 2025).
Legal Terms of Use
© 2025 ZRC SAZU UIFS, Corpus picturarum muralium medii aevi
ZRC SAZU
France Stele Institute of Art History
Novi trg 2
1000 Ljubljana
Spodaj seznam podrobno opisuje piškotke, ki se uporabljajo na našem spletnem mestu.
Cookie | Type | Duration | Description |
---|---|---|---|
_ga | Non-Necessary | 2 years | This cookie is installed by Google Analytics. The cookie is used to calculate visitor, session, camapign data and keep track of site usage for the site's analytics report. The cookies store information anonymously and assigns a randoly generated number to identify unique visitors. |
_gat | Non-Necessary | 1 minute | Google uses this cookie to distinguish users. |
_gid | Non-Necessary | 1 day | This cookie is installed by Google Analytics. The cookie is used to store information of how visitors use a website and helps in creating an analytics report of how the wbsite is doing. The data collected including the number visitors, the source where they have come from, and the pages viisted in an anonymous form. |
cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary | Necessary | 1 year | This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". |
cookielawinfo-checkbox-non-necessary | Necessary | 1 year | This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Non Necessary". |
CookieLawInfoConsent | Necessary | 1 year | The cookie is used to store the summary of the consent given for cookie usage. It does not store any personal data. |
PHPSESSID | session | Time of session | Cookie stores information about the user's session and allow users to keep their entries during the time of visiting the website. |
pll_language | Necessary | 1 year | This cookie is used to remember any selection a user has made about language. |
show_preloader_once | Necessary | Session | With this cookie we remember the user's first visit. |
viewed_cookie_policy | Necessary | 1 year | The cookie is used to store whether or not you have consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data. |